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Who were the Thracians?

The Thracians were an Indo-European people who occupied the area between northern Greece and southern Russia beginning in the 7th millennia BC.  They shared the same language and culture, although the former had no written form, and they never achieved a national conciousness.  Herodotus (V,3) described the Thracians as the most numerous people of all, after the Indians.  He said that only their chronic disunity prevented them from being the most powerful of all nations.  They lived almost entirely in villages; the city of Seuthopolis seems to be the only significant town or city in Thrace not built by the Greeks.  They were finally conquered by the Romans in 46 AD.

  (the following text from the Ministry of Macedonia-Thrace web page)

The Thracians had migrated to Southeastern Europe after the Greeks, after the middle of the second millenium B.C. and in particular in the 12th century B.C. At the same time, Thracian tribes settled in Asia Minor, especially in Bithynia and the Troad.   Thracian tribes inhabited Central Macedonia until the founding of the kingdom of Macedonia by the Temenids (early 7th century B.C.), at which time they were forced to move eastwards. In the end, the Thracian tribes were resitricted mainly to the northeastern area of the Balkans. From the 7th century B.C. Greek colonies were founded on the Thracian seashores by colonists from the islands of the Eastern Aegean and the Ionian city-states of Asia Minor, a fact which led to more intense mutual influence between the Greeks and Thracians throughout the historical period.

In the Classical Period, the great kingdom of the Odrysians, which covered at its height the area from the Strymon River to the Black Sea and from the Aegean to the Danube, was created. The Odrysian kings were subjugated in 342 B.C. by the Macedonians, and after the fall of the kingdom of Macedonia in 168 B.C., became subject to the Romans. In 47 B.C. the kingdom of the Odrysians was terminated and Thrace became established as a Roman province. During the Hellenistic and Roman tribes, the diaspora of the Thracian tribes due to movement elsewhere and service in the Roman army produced the final disappearance of the Thracians and their ethnic and cultural assimilation. After the hellenization of the main area of Thrace, the romanization of its northern areas followed. The subsequent spreading of Christianity contributed to the full integration of these populations into the Greco-Roman world.

Bronze Age

Many settlements from the Neolithic Age still exist. In this age, however, the settlements are fewer but with a greater concentration of population. Houses are rectangular, with arches. At the end of the Late Bronze Age, migrations of the Thracian tribes and their settlement in ancient Thrace begin.

Early Iron Age (1050-7th Century B.C.)

About 100 sites from this period are known in Greece. Both mountain and plain settlements have been located.

Archaic, Classical, and Hellenistic Periods

In the 7th century B.C. the Greek colonies of the Thracian coasts were founded by Greeks from the islands of the Eastern aegean and from the Ionian city-states of Northern Greece. Between the mouth of the Nestos River and the Abdera, Dikaia, Strymi, Maroneia, Orthagoria, Mesimvria-Zoni, Drys, and Sali were founded. On the Western coast of the Black Sea the Milesians founded Apollonia, Odessos, Tomi, and Kallati, while the Megarians founded Mesimvria.
Significant archeological sites are Abdera, where parts of the fortifications and cemeteries of the Archaic and Classical town have been revealed, as well parts of houses, the acropolis, the theater, and the cemeteries of the Classical and Hellenistic town; Maroneia, where the fortifications, the acropolis, the theater, temples, and houses have been found; Samothrace, where a series of buildings used for the Mysteries of the Great Gods has been excavated; and also Dikaia, Strymi, Kalyva in Xanthi Province, Mesimvria, and Sali.

Roman Era

Thrace becomes a Roman province in 46 B.C., with Perinthos as its capital. The Greek city-states of Thrace kept the status of free cities. Until the age of Diocletian (279 A.D.) the Romans maintain the political organization of the Greeks and the Greek administrative system. During the Roman period, urbanization of Thrace, following the model of the Greek city-states, is conducted. The villages and towns of Thrace were organized in a common federal system. In this period, Traianopolis, Plotinopolis (now Didymotiho) and Adrianople are founded.

(the following text is from Armies of the Macedonian and Punic Wars, p 29 and 51)

From the Third Century BC, "Thracians feature more as auxiliaries in other armies than fighting on their own account. Their numerous tribes were rarely united, most having their own kings though some of the wilder hill tribes were kingless. Before the second century BC the Odrysai had dominated much of Thrace but their kingdom collapsed on the assassination of Kotys I in 359, to be followed by Macedonian overlordship. After Alexander the Great's death Lysimachos ruled most of Thrace, dominating the Odrysai under Seuthes III, but his attempts to expand northwards were thwarted when his army was beaten by king Dromichaites of the Getai, a rising power. After 279 the Galatians set up the kingdom of Tylis in the south-east, which raided the surrounding areas till its overthrow by the Odrysai about 200. Thereafter the Odrysai were again the dominant power, sometimes allied and sometimes hostile to Macedon, though most of the other tribes retained some independence.

Armies would still be essentially the same as those described in 5th and early 4th century sources, made up of cavalry, peltasts (or equivalent, though larger shields replaced the pelte), javelinmen and archers, the first two types I being predominant. Polyainos has a reference to Thracian slingers in the early 4th century. The early accounts suggest 25-40% cavalry; in our era the Getai fielded 4,000 horse and 10,000 foot against Alexander, the Odrysai 8,000 horse and 20,000 foot against Lysimachos, which fits these proportions. The Getai and Odrysai had the best and most numerous cavalry, while the wild hill tribes like the Dioi and Bessoi relied on their fierce infantry.

Thucydides in the 5th century indeed says the Getai all fought as Scythian-style horse-archers, but though they may : have produced all-cavalry forces for raids or distant expeditions, they clearly had many infantry for home defence.

The Odrysian king Kotys in 171 had 1,000 elite cavalry, probably a royal bodyguard of nobles, with an equal force of light infantry attached to them.

Thracians were regarded as warlike, ferocious, and savagely bloodthirsty, but ill-disciplined and sometimes unreliable, with a weakness for loot. Macedonian generals often used them for executions or massacres. Livy describes Kotys' elite cavalry and their supporting infantry charging "like wild beasts who had long been kept caged", and singing as they returned from battle with severed heads as trophies. They often seem to have sung war songs, Tacitus later saying they "capered and chanted in front of their lines according to their national custom".

The Thracians had been the originators of the peltast style of fighting which the Greeks had adopted, and their infantry still relied heavily on javelin fire. Thracian auxiliaries in Macedonian and Roman armies were often used for raids and skirmishes. In pitched battles, however, Thracians who attempted to skirmish would now often find themselves ridden down by enemy cavalry, and against Romans and Macedonians Thracians often found that after an initially successful exchange of missiles they would be forced to fight hand to hand and soundly beaten by their heavier armed opponents. On their own heavily wooded and hilly home ground they relied on ambushes with some success, seizing commanding hilltop positions and delivering surprise attacks from the cover of forests. One Thracian army awaited Alexander the Great atop a hill behind a barricade of wagons, which they then rolled down on the Macedonian infantry.

The cavalry who charged so ferociously were probably armoured nobles, and the light equipment of the bulk of the cavalry suggests they were primarily skirmishers. Their traditional formation however was the wedge, which as the Macedonians found was well suited to a charge. Kotys' cavalry was supported by light infantry who stood between the ranks, charged in support of them and hamstrung the enemy horses. Bithynian cavalry too seem to have been closely supported by attached infantry. This is not recorded before the early 3rd century (if that is the date of the Bithynian example) and is probably a result of Hellenistic influence, as Greek and Macedonian generals were using light infantry in close support of their cavalry long before."

What did they look like?

Thracian dress is well known; the best descriptions are given by Herodotus (V11.75) and Xenophon ; (Anabasis V11.4), and it is illustrated on Greek vase-paintings. A Persian representation (Fig. 3) is useful confirmation . Basic costume was tunic, cloak (zeira), cap (alopekis) and boots. Xenophon says that the tunic covered the legs as well as the body, implying that it was longer than the Greek equivalent; Greek artists do not confirm this, but the Persian relief seems to show a fairly long tunic; perhaps shorter garments were worn in the milder climate of Greece than at home in Thrace, whose freezing winters were infamous. The tunic was frequently patterned at the hem, and sometimes all over (Fig. 1A). The cloak seems to have been of heavy material, since the paintings show it as stiff and not hanging in folds; the top portion could be folded over as a sort of collar (Fig. 8B), or the top corners could be turned in to hang over the chest (Fig. 14) or thrown back over the shoulders. The cloak was boldly patterned with lozenges, zig-zag and embattled lines, and other geometric motifs. The cap seems to have come in two main styles, one pointed (Figs 1B, 1D and 9) and one lower, with a rounded crown (Figs 1A, 2, 8 and 11). Both had a flap for the neck and one or more on each cheek, occasionally shown tied beneath the chin. It is described as made of foxskin; the hair is never indicated, presumably being either trimmed close or removed. How the dappled effect sometimes seen (e.g. Fig 11) was obtained is not clear. The boots were of fawnskin, laced up the front, and usually with a number of flaps hanging down from the top. Later, by the early 3rd century at least, the more distinctive features began to disappear; the Thracians in the tomb-paintings from Kazanluk (see fig. 6 here and my article in the May 1978 "Slingshot" page 10 and figs 7 and 8) do not wear caps or boots, and their cloaks are plain.

Little information is available on colours. Herodotus says the zeira was brightly coloured, and the Kazanluk paintings show a range of hues including red, red-brown, pale blue, pale green, cream, and off-white. The Thracians at Pydna in 168 wore black tunics; it is hard to say whether any of this would be typical of the earlier period. Beards are common, though not universal, in 6th and 5th century sources, but rare at Kazanluk Herodotus says that the Thracians regarded tattoos as a mark of high birth; but other sources tell the story that the Thracians caused their women to be tattooed to commemorate the murder of Orpheus, implying that the men were not tattooed; certainly Thracian women on Greek vases are distinguished in this way, but I know of no example of a man shown with tattoos. (from Duncan Head's 1979 Slingshot article)

More information on Thracian dress and appearance is on the costume page, the cloaks page, and on the pictures page.

When did they exist?

People first settled the area occupied by the Thracians about 7,000 BC.  They came under Macedonian domination around 350 BC, and were finally absorbed into the Roman empire in 46 AD (despite a couple of revolts that followed).  Their culture survived until the 5th Century AD in some areas, but only until the 2nd Century AD in others.  Read more about their history on the Thracian kings page, or the history page.

Where did they live?

The Thracians lived in the area between the Ukraine and northern Greece, as well as north-western Turkey.  Scholars differ about exactly how far the range extended, as there are many overlaps with the Illyrians, Macedonians, and Skythians.  You can see several maps on the maps page

How did they fight?

The Thracians were famous for introducing the Greeks to the peltast.  This was a hit-and-run infantryman who was useful for guarding flanks, maintaining links between cavalry and infantry, and occupying difficult terrain.  His only armour was a light shield, the pelte, and a helmet.  He was armed with javelins and a sword. When the Greeks first met the Thracians, the Greek hoplites could not catch the Thracians, who were thus able to throw their javelins without loss to themselves.  When the Greek formation was tired, broken up, or surrounded, the peltasts would then close for the kill.

These peltasts began to be hired as mercenaries during the Peloponnesian war, helping to make the Greek armies more balanced, and fostering combined arms tactics.  There were two notable victories scored by peltasts over Spartan hoplites - Pylos (Thucydides IV, 26; 425 BC) and Lechaeum (near Corinth, 390 BC).  It is likely that some of the peltasts present at those battles were Thracian, but Thucydides doesn't say so.

Thracians also used light and heavy cavalry, and light infantry archers, javelinmen, and slingers.

Read more about Thracian troop types on the Warriors page or the Articles page

Why a Thracian page?

The Thracians make a colourful and dramatic subject for study.  I started using a Thracian army in 1982, as it was similar to my Hykranian campaign army, and the army list allowed a large number of troops with 2-handed cutting weapon and javelin, a potent combination under WRG 6th edition Ancients rules.  At the time, there was some controversy about whether they actually used this weapon, the falx, so I went to Bulgaria in 1986 to find it (and to see Thracians in colour at Kazanluk), and I did!  Read about the rhomphia/falx on the weapons page.  Since then, I've been compiling quotes from the source texts, which you can now read.

Bevan, Vol II, p49:

"Thrace was one of those regions where Hellenic civilisation was continually menaced by the neighbourhood of barbarians, whilst its position between the East and West made it of peculiar importance for the traffic of the Greek world.  As the country passed from one to the other of the great Macedonian houses, barbarians pressed forward upon the Hellenic frontiers."

For two thousand years, possibly a million Thracians lived in the area now covered by Rumania, Bulgaria, northwestern Greece, and northwestern Turkey. They never progressed beyond a tribal Homeric society, and were constantly at war with one another and their neighbours. Their warlike temper put them in constant demand as (sometimes highly paid) mercenaries by all the Mediterranean powers. Even though their stout resistance to the Persians proved futile, they captured Xerxes’ chariot during the latter’s retreat through Thrace. They annihilated several Greek armies sent on colonisation attempts, and continually gave the coastal Greek cities a lot of trouble. Until 46 AD (when Thrace became a Roman province) the Greeks and Romans lived in fear of a dark Thracian cloud descending from the north, devastating civilisation in the Balkans. Fortunately, this only happened twice.

At the beginning of winter 429 BC, the Odrysian king Sitalces managed to unite Thrace south of the Danube, and 150,000 warriors poured into Macedonia, carrying all before them. The army was composed of roughly one-third heavy and light cavalry (mostly javelin armed, but with a good proportion of Getic horse archers), and two-thirds peltasts and light infantry. Travelling with the army were Amyntas, the nephew of the Macedonian king Perdiccas, and Hagnon, an Athenian general. Sitalces proposed to install Amnyntas as the new King of Macedonia, while Hagnon was to command the allied Athenian fleet and army.

Alarm spread throughout Greece. The peoples of central and northern Greece prepared for war; terrified Athenian enemies further south discussed what to do in the face of a combined Athenian –Thracian army.

However, Sitalces had reached the Chalcidian peninsula (the three tongued land spit near Thessalonica) to find that no Athenian army and fleet awaited him. This was because either (as Thucydides says) the Athenians didn’t expect Sitalces to fulfil his promise to attack the Chalcidian cities, or because the Athenians were frightened by the size of Sitalces’ army. Without the Athenians, Sitalces was unable to take the Chalcidian cities., Instead, he forced the inhabitants to retire behind their fortifications while he ravaged their land for eight days. At the same time, as his army was running short of food and suffering from cold, he opened negotiations with Perdicaas.

Perdicaas bribed Sitalces’ nephew and second in command, Seuthes, to advise a retreat. Sitalces took Seuthes’ advice, and, after only thirty days, the campaign ended. Seuthes later married Perdicaas’ daughter and succeeded Sitalces, but was unable to keep Sitalces’ empire intact. Later invasions of Macedon (one in cooperation with the Illyrians) were forestalled by Philip II using similar methods. Philip then went on to conquer a large part of Thrace, although many of the mountain tribes remained free until the final Roman conquest. This did not stop violent rebellions against him, his son Alexander the Great, and Alexander’s satrap Lysimachus. These all ultimately failed, although the Getae captured Lysimachus and forced him to give back some territory to them. An alliance with the Skythians against Lysimachus also failed to bring any results, due to quick action by the Macedonians

However, after Alexander’s death, Macedonian control of Thrace was exerted mainly through a system of alliances, and was in reality confined to a few garrisons.. At this time, in the fourth century, the Thracians experienced a kind of second golden age. The Odrysian king, Seuthes III, built a capital city, Seuthopolis, in the Thracian plain. This city survived until the end of the century, when it was destroyed. Seuthes’ magnificent tomb, near Kazanluk in the centre of Bulgaria, contains the only surviving colour depictions of Thracian warriors.

The Thracians were unable to threaten Greece proper again until 119 BC, when the Scordisci (a mixed Illyrian, and Celtic tribe) and Maedi invaded Macedonia, and defeated and killed the governor. Also, around 91 BC, the Roman governor of Macedonia, C. Sentius was kept busy by several Thracian incursions, one of which reached as far as Dodona [Livy, Epit. 74, 76]. Under the Romans, Thrace became the provinces of Moesia and Thracia, from which three rebellions boiled before the area was finally subjugated. According to Florus [Florus II, XXVII], after one of these rebellions had been crushed, "[the Thracians] showed their mad rage even in captivity; for they punished their own savagery by trying to bite through their fetters."

Spartacus and Thracian Gladiators

Although he is said to have had red hair, Spartacus may not have been Thracian, just a Thracian gladiator. 

"In reference to gladiators, "Thracian" (along with "Gaul," and "Samnite") does not indicate the ethnicity of the fighter, but simply designates a particular type of gladiator that used the characteristic  armor and fighting equipment of enemy peoples defeated by Rome (Thrace, Gaul, and Samnium).  A "Thracian" gladiator may not be a person from Thrace, but he was distinguishable as a "Thracian" because of his round shield and saber, and his lack of armor (when referring to the gladiator, the Romans normally used the spelling Thraex; for the ethnic designation, Thrax)."   from http://depthome.brooklyn.cuny.edu/classics/gldiator.htm

The gladiators shown at left are from the British Museum .  The right-hand gladiator is similar to a Thracian gladiator (author's photograph).   Click on the two images above to see two fantastic paintings of Thracian gladiators by Johnny Shumate.

There is a picture of a Thracian gladiator at http://www.warriorcentral.com/thracian.html

Glossary

Askos A small vessel for pouring oil with a convex body and a basket handle which reaches to the oblique spout.

Hydria A three-handled water jar used for drawing water, as cinerary urns and as ballot boxes.

Kantharos A footed bowl with two high-curving vertical handles seton each side.

Kylix A two-handled drinking cup with a stemmed foot.

Lekythos A flask for toilet oils, perfume or condiments having a cylindrical body, a narrow neck with a deep mouth and one handle. The handle reaches from the shoulder to just below the neck.

Oinochoe A vase with a short globular body and continuous curve from mouth to foot, a high neck with a slightly flaring lip and trefoil mouth, a vertical looped handle which rises above the lip, and a low foot.

Pelike A one-piece amphora, so called because the neck flows smoothly into the body.

Phalera Cheek-piece of the horse-bits.

Phiale A wide shallow cup, with or without a foot, which generally has a boss rising from the centre

Rhyton A drinking-vessel. The most common shape is that of an animal horn. Rhytons have an opening near the lower end, which can allow a thin stream of wine to flow into a phiale held in the pourer's other hand.

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This page last updated on Monday, 07 October 2002 by Christopher Webber thracian@pnc.com.au

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